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Tafl games are a family of ancient Germanic and Celtic strategy board games played on a checkered or latticed gameboard with two armies of uneven numbers, representing variants of an early Scandinavian board game called tafl or hnefatafl in contemporary literature. Although the size of the board and the number of pieces varied, all games involved a distinctive 2:1 ratio of pieces, with the lesser side having a king-piece that started in the centre. No complete, unambiguous description of the rules of a tafl game exists, but the king's objective was to escape to (variously) the board's periphery or corners, while the greater force's objective was to capture him. The attacking force has the natural advantage at the start of each game, likely indicating an important cultural aspect by mimicking the success of Viking raids. Another cultural indication of the king is that importance of the Viking chiefs' presence in battle. Although the kings of Europe later claimed divine rule and sat upon the throne rather than bodies in the battlefield, it was essential for a Viking chief to be considered an equal in war. The importance of war is also reflected in Hnefatafl because it is a war strategy game, which can indicate an important reason why the gaming boards have been found with males of all ages. In Balnakeil, a male skeleton between the ages of 8 and 13 was found with weapons and a Hnefatafl board game. Vikings tended to take boys onto the battlefield with them, which explains why young boys also played these war-strategic board games. There is also some controversy over whether some tafl games (i.e. ''Hnefatafl'' and ''Tawlbwrdd'') may have employed dice.〔Helmfrid 2005, pp. 10–11, discusses a set of intriguing yet ultimately puzzling riddles related in Hervarar Saga, referring to hnefatafl. Bayless 2005, pp. 15–16, suggests that several archaeological finds in Scandinavia reveal hnefatafl sets that included dice, and discusses controversy over whether the very name ''tawlbwrdd'' suggests the throwing of dice.〕 Tafl spread everywhere the Vikings traveled, including Iceland, Britain, Ireland, and Lapland.〔Murray 1951, p. 56, Helmfrid 2005, p. 2〕 Versions of Tafl, comprising Hnefatafl, Alea Evangelii, Tawlbwrdd (Wales), Brandubh, Ard Ri and Tablut, were played across much of Northern Europe from earlier than 400 B.C. until it was supplanted by chess in the 12th century.〔Murray 1951, pp. 56–57〕 The term ''tafl'' (Old Norse: "table", "board"; )〔Ellis 1869, pp. 554, 559. The mutation of ''f'' to () is included in the table on p. 554 (also here attributed to Jakob Grimm), and borne out in the comparative translation on p. 559〕 is the original name of the game. However, ''Hnefatafl'' became the preferred term for the game in Scandinavia by the end of the Viking Age, to distinguish it from other board games, such as ''Skáktafl'' (chess), ''Kvatrutafl'' (Tables) and ''Halatafl'' (Fox games), as these became known.〔 The specific name ''Hnefatafl'' possibly arose as meaning "board game of the fist", from ''hnefi'' ("fist") + ''tafl'',〔Helmfrid 2005, p. 1, discusses this etymology, elements of which are confirmed by Zoëga 1910, "hnefa"/"-tafl"/"hnefi".〕 where "fist" referred to the central king-piece. The precise etymology is disputed,〔Murray 1951, p. 60, says "''hnefi'' (meaning doubtful, but used of the king-piece)", while Helmfrid 2005, p. 1, notes that ''hnefa'' is the genitive form of Icelandic ''hnefi'' (fist), but concedes "it is often translated as king."〕 but ''hnefi'' certainly referred to the king-piece,〔Murray 1951, p. 60. Helmfrid, Bell, and Hervarar Saga all agree on this point.〕 and several sources refer to ''Hnefatafl'' as "King's table". In Anglo-Saxon England, the term ''tæfl'' also referred to many board games. It is not known if the Anglo-Saxons had a specific name for the game or if they generically referred to it as "tæfl" in the way that modern people might refer to "cards". Several games may be confused with tafl games, due to the inclusion of the word "tafl" in their names or other similarities. ''Halatafl'' is the Old Norse name for Fox and Geese, a game dating from at least the 14th century. It is still known and played in Europe. ''Kvatrutafl'' is the Old Norse name for Tables (the medieval forerunner of Backgammon). ''Skáktafl'' is the Old Norse name for Chess. ''Fidchell'' or ''Fithcheall'' (Modern Irish: ''Ficheall'') was played in Ireland. The Welsh equivalent was ''Gwyddbwyll'' and the Breton equivalent ''Gwezboell''; all terms mean "wood-sense".〔Bayless 2005, p. 17〕 This popular medieval game was played with equal forces on each side and thus was not a tafl variant, but rather may have been the medieval descendant of the Roman game ''Latrunculi'' or ''Ludus latrunculorum''.〔Helmfrid 2005, p. 7, and Murray 1951, p. 35. Also, Bayless 2005, p. 17, further discusses the link between Fidchell and Latrunculi and the difference between these games and the tafl family.〕 ==Hnefatafl in Saga literature== Hnefatafl was mentioned in several of the medieval sagas, including ''Orkneyinga saga'', ''Friðþjófs saga'', ''Hervarar saga'', and others. These three period treatments of Hnefatafl offer some important clues about the game, while numerous other incidental references to ''Hnefatafl'' or ''Tafl'' exist in saga literature.〔Helmfrid 2005, p. 11〕 Sagas help indicate the widespread use of board games just by mentioning them--although rituals varied in the Viking period from region to region, there were some underlying basics to culture. The fact that the sagas mention board games indicates this use because the sagas are read and understood by a very large audience. In ''Orkeyinga saga'', the notability of Hnefatafl is evident in the nine boasts of Jarl Rögnvald Kali Kolsson, who tops his list with skill at ''Tafl''.〔Peterson 2005, Helmfrid 2005, p. 11. Original source: Rǫgnvaldr jarl kali Kolsson 1158, Orknøsk jarl og skjald (Original text ) (Icelandic). An English translation is prominent in the Viking Answer Lady's (King's Table ) article.〕 In ''Friðþjófs saga'', a conversation over a game of Hnefatafl reveals that the king's men are red and the attackers white, and that the word ''hnefi'' does indeed refer to the kingpiece.〔Helmfrid 2005, p. 10〕 The most revealing – and yet most ambiguous – clues to Hnefatafl lie in a series of riddles posed by a character identified as Odin in disguise (see Gestumblindi) in ''Hervarar saga''. One riddle, as stated in Hauksbók, refers to "the ''weaponless'' maids who fight around their lord, the () ever sheltering and the () ever attacking him," although there is controversy over whether the word ''weaponless'' refers to the maids or, as in other versions, to the king himself, which may support the argument that a "weaponless king" cannot take part in captures (see #Balance of play).〔Helmfrid 2005, p. 10, reproduces the above quotation from Hauksbok and discusses the "weaponless" controversy.〕 One may also note that the assignment of the colours of brown or red to the defenders and fair or white to the attackers is consistent with ''Friðþjófs saga''. Another of Gestumblindi's riddles asks, "What is that beast all girded with iron, which kills the flocks? He has eight horns but no head, and runs as he pleases."〔Quoted in Helmfrid 2005, p. 10. An alternative translation is (here on the web ).〕 Here, it is the answer that is controversial, as the response has been variously translated as: "It is the húnn in hnefatafl. He has the name of a bear and runs when he is thrown;" or, "It is the húnn in hnefatafl. He has the name of a bear and escapes when he is attacked."〔Both translations offered in Helmfrid 2005, pp. 10–11〕 The first problem is in translating the word ''húnn'', which may refer to a die (as suggested by the former translation), the "eight horns" referring to the eight corners of a six-sided die and "the flocks" that he kills referring to the stakes the players lose.〔Helmfrid 2005, p. 11. This is a close paraphrasing of Helmfrid's own words.〕 Alternatively, ''húnn'' may refer to the king, his "eight horns" referring to the eight defenders, which is more consistent with the latter translation, "He has the name of a bear and escapes when he is attacked."〔Helmfrid 2005, p. 11. The idea that the ''húnn'' is the king is supported by Murray (p. 61).〕 Ultimately, the literary references prove inconclusive on the use of dice in Hnefatafl. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「tafl games」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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